With ssh it is possible to log in to remote systems and to work interactively. To log in to the host sun as user tux enter one of the following commands:

ssh tux@sun
ssh -l tux sun

If the user name is the same on both machines, you can omit it. Using ssh sun is sufficient. The remote host prompts for the remote user's password. After a successful authentication, you can work on the remote command line or use interactive applications, such as YaST in text mode.

Furthermore, ssh offers the possibility to run non-interactive commands on remote systems using ssh HOST COMMAND. COMMAND needs to be properly quoted. Multiple commands can be concatenated as on a local shell.

ssh root@sun "dmesg -T | tail -n 25"
ssh root@sun "cat /etc/issue && uptime"

scp copies files to or from a remote machine. If the user name on jupiter is different than the user name on sun, specify the latter using the USER_NAME@host format. If the file should be copied into a directory other than the remote user's home directory, specify it as sun:DIRECTORY. The following examples show how to copy a file from a local to a remote machine and vice versa.

# local -> remote
scp ~/MyLetter.tex tux@sun:/tmp
# remote -> local
scp tux@sun:/tmp/MyLetter.tex ~

Tip: The -l Option

With the ssh command, the option -l can be used to specify a remote user (as an alternative to the USER_NAME@host format). With scp the option -l is used to limit the bandwidth consumed by scp.

After the correct password is entered, scp starts the data transfer. It displays a progress bar and the time remaining for each file that is copied. Suppress all output with the -q option.

scp also provides a recursive copying feature for entire directories. The command

scp -r src/ sun:backup/

copies the entire contents of the directory src including all subdirectories to the ~/backup directory on the host sun. If this subdirectory does not exist, it is created automatically.

The -p option tells scp to leave the time stamp of files unchanged. -C compresses the data transfer. This minimizes the data volume to transfer, but creates a heavier burden on the processors of both machines.

To work with the SSH client programs ssh and scp, a server (the SSH daemon) must be running in the background, listening for connections on TCP/IP port 22. The daemon generates three key pairs when starting for the first time. Each key pair consists of a private and a public key. Therefore, this procedure is called public key-based. To guarantee the security of the communication via SSH, access to the private key files must be restricted to the system administrator. The file permissions are set accordingly by the default installation. The private keys are only required locally by the SSH daemon and must not be given to anyone else. The public key components (recognizable by the name extension .pub) are sent to the client requesting the connection. They are readable for all users.

A connection is initiated by the SSH client. The waiting SSH daemon and the requesting SSH client exchange identification data to compare the protocol and software versions, and to prevent connections through the wrong port. Because a child process of the original SSH daemon replies to the request, several SSH connections can be made simultaneously.

For the communication between SSH server and SSH client, OpenSSH supports versions 1 and 2 of the SSH protocol. Version 2 of the SSH protocol is used by default. Override this to use version 1 of protocol with the -1 option.

When using version 1 of SSH, the server sends its public host key and a server key, which is regenerated by the SSH daemon every hour. Both allow the SSH client to encrypt a freely chosen session key, which is sent to the SSH server. The SSH client also tells the server which encryption method (cipher) to use. Version 2 of the SSH protocol does not require a server key. Both sides use an algorithm according to Diffie-Hellman to exchange their keys.

The private host and server keys are absolutely required to decrypt the session key and cannot be derived from the public parts. Only the contacted SSH daemon can decrypt the session key using its private keys. This initial connection phase can be watched closely by turning on verbose debugging using the -v option of the SSH client.

14.4.1 Maintaining SSH Keys #

It is recommended to back up the private and public keys stored in /etc/ssh/ in a secure, external location. In this way, key modifications can be detected or the old ones can be used again after having installed a new system.

Tip: Existing SSH Host Keys

If you install openSUSE Leap on a machine with existing Linux installations, the installation routine automatically imports the SSH host key with the most recent access time from an existing installation.

When establishing a secure connection with a remote host for the first time, the client stores all public host keys in ~/.ssh/known_hosts. This prevents any man-in-the-middle attacks—attempts by foreign SSH servers to use spoofed names and IP addresses. Such attacks are detected either by a host key that is not included in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or by the server's inability to decrypt the session key in the absence of an appropriate private counterpart.

If the public keys of a host have changed (that needs to be verified before connecting to such a server), the offending keys can be removed with ssh-keygen -r HOSTNAME.

14.4.2 Rotating Host Keys #

As of version 6.8, OpenSSH comes with a protocol extension that supports host key rotation. It makes sense to replace keys, if you are still using weak keys such as 1024-bit RSA keys. It is strongly recommended to replace such a key and go for 2048-bit DSA keys or something even better. The client will then use the “best” host key.

Tip: Restarting sshd

After installing new host keys on the server, restart sshd.

This protocol extension can inform a client of all the new host keys on the server, if the user initiates a connection with ssh. Then, the software on the client updates ~/.ssh/known_hosts, and the user is not required to accept new keys of previously known and trusted hosts manually. The local known_hosts file will contain all the host keys of the remote hosts, in addition to the one that authenticated the host during this session.

Once the administrator of the server knows that all the clients have fetched the new keys, they can remove the old keys. The protocol extension ensures that the obsolete keys will be removed from the client's configuration, too. The key removal occurs while initiating an ssh session.

For more information, see:

• http://blog.djm.net.au/2015/02/key-rotation-in-openssh-68.html

• http://heise.de/-2540907 (“Endlich neue Schlüssel für SSH-Server”, German only)

In its simplest form, authentication is done by entering the user's password just as if logging in locally. However, having to memorize passwords of several users on remote machines is inefficient. What is more, these passwords may change. On the other hand—when granting root access—an administrator needs to be able to quickly revoke such a permission without having to change the root password.

To accomplish a login that does not require to enter the remote user's password, SSH uses another key pair, which needs to be generated by the user. It consists of a public (id_rsa.pub or id_dsa.pub) and a private key (id_rsa or id_dsa).

To be able to log in without having to specify the remote user's password, the public key of the “SSH user” must be in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys. This approach also ensures that the remote user has got full control: adding the key requires the remote user's password and removing the key revokes the permission to log in from remote.

For maximum security such a key should be protected by a passphrase which needs to be entered every time you use ssh, scp, or sftp. Contrary to the simple authentication, this passphrase is independent from the remote user and therefore always the same.

An alternative to the key-based authentication described above, SSH also offers a host-based authentication. With host-based authentication, users on a trusted host can log in to another host on which this feature is enabled using the same user name. openSUSE Leap is set up for using key-based authentication, covering setting up host-based authentication on openSUSE Leap is beyond the scope of this manual.

Note: File Permissions for Host-Based Authentication

If the host-based authentication is to be used, the file /usr/lib/ssh/ssh-keysign (32-bit systems) or /usr/lib64/ssh/ssh-keysign (64-bit systems) should have the setuid bit set, which is not the default setting in openSUSE Leap. In such case, set the file permissions manually. You should use /etc/permissions.local for this purpose, to make sure that the setuid bit is preserved after security updates of openssh.

# ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub
ssh-copy-id -i tux@sun

# ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub
ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub  tux@sun

# ~notme/.ssh/id_rsa.pub
ssh-copy-id -i ~notme/.ssh/id_rsa.pub  tux@sun

ssh-agent -s /bin/bash
eval $(ssh-agent)

ssh can also be used to redirect TCP/IP connections. This feature, also called SSH tunneling, redirects TCP connections to a certain port to another machine via an encrypted channel.

With the following command, any connection directed to jupiter port 25 (SMTP) is redirected to the SMTP port on sun. This is especially useful for those using SMTP servers without SMTP-AUTH or POP-before-SMTP features. From any arbitrary location connected to a network, e-mail can be transferred to the “home” mail server for delivery.

ssh -L 25:sun:25 jupiter

Similarly, all POP3 requests (port 110) on jupiter can be forwarded to the POP3 port of sun with this command:

ssh -L 110:sun:110 jupiter

Both commands must be executed as root, because the connection is made to privileged local ports. E-mail is sent and retrieved by normal users in an existing SSH connection. The SMTP and POP3 host must be set to localhost for this to work. Additional information can be found in the manual pages for each of the programs described above and in the OpenSSH package documentation under /usr/share/doc/packages/openssh.